Tropaeolum – Nasturtium

Balcony grown in a small hanging basket from seed.

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Tropaeolum /trɵˈpiːələm/, commonly known as nasturtium (/næˈstɜrʃ(i)əm/; literally “nose-twister” or “nose-tweaker”), is a genus of roughly 80 species of annual and perennial herbaceous flowering plants. It was named by Carl Linnaeus and is the only genus in the family Tropaeolaceae. The nasturtiums received their common name because they produce an oil that is similar to that of watercress (Nasturtium officinale).

The genus Tropaeolum, native to South and Central America, includes several very popular garden plants, the most commonly grown being T. majus, T. peregrinum and T. speciosum. One of the hardiest species is T. polyphyllum from Chile, the perennial roots of which can survive the winter underground at altitudes of 3,300 metres (10,000 ft).

Plants in this genus have showy, often intensely bright flowers, and rounded, peltate (shield-shaped) leaves with the petiole in the centre. The flowers are bisexual and zygomorphic, with five petals, a superior three-carpelled ovary, and a funnel-shaped nectar spur at the back, formed by modification of one of the five sepals.

Kingdom:	Plantae
(unranked):	Angiosperms
(unranked):	Eudicots
(unranked):	Rosids
Order:	Brassicales
Family:	Tropaeolaceae
Genus:	Tropaeolum L.

History

The first Tropaeolum species was imported into Spain by the Spanish botanist Nicolás Monardes. He published an account in 1569 entitled Joyful News out of the Newe Founde Worlde in which he described, among other things, the plants and animals discovered in South America. The English herbalist John Gerard reports having received seeds of the plant from Europe in his 1597 book Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes. Tropaeolum majus was named by the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus, who chose the genus name because the plant reminded him of an ancient custom. After victory in battle, the Romans used to set up a trophy pole called a tropaeum (from the Greek tropaion, source of English “trophy“). On this the armour and weapons of the vanquished foe were hung. Linnaeus was reminded of this by the plant as the round leaves resembled shields and the flowers, blood-stained helmets.

Nasturtiums were once known commonly as “Indian cresses” because they were introduced from the Americas, known popularly then as the Indies, and used like cress as salad ingredients. John Gerard called the plant “Indian Cresses” in his herbal. He wrote: “unto the backe part (of the flower) doth hange a taile or spurre, such as hath the Larkes heele, called in Latine Consolida regalis. He was comparing the flowers of Indian cress to those of forking larkspur (Consolida regalis) of the buttercup family. J R R Tolkien commented that an alternative anglicization of the name was “nasturtian” rather than “nasturtium”.

Description

Tropaeolum is a genus of dicotyledonous annual or perennial plants, often with somewhat succulent stems and sometimes tuberous roots. The alternate leaves are hairless, peltate and entire or palmately lobed. The petioles or leaf stalks are long and in many species are able to twine round other stems to provide support. The flowers are bisexual and showy, set singly on long stalks in the axils of the leaves. They have five sepals, the uppermost of which is elongated into a nectar spur. The five petals are clawed, with the lower three unlike the upper two. The eight stamens are in two whorls of unequal length and the superior ovary has three segments and three stigmas on a single style. The fruit is naked and nut-like, with three single seed segments.

Tropaeolum tuberosum

The most common flower in cultivation is a hybrid of T. majus, T. minus and T. peltophorum, and is commonly known as the nasturtium (and occasionally anglicized as nasturtian). It is mostly grown from seed as a half-hardy annual and both single and double varieties are available. It comes in a range of forms and colours including cream, yellow, orange and red, solid in colour or striped and often with a dark blotch at the base of the petals. It is vigorous and easily grown and does well in sun. It thrives in poor soil and dry conditions, whereas in rich soil it tends to produce much leafy growth and few flowers. Some varieties adopt a bush form while others scramble over and through other plants and are useful for planting in awkward spots or for covering fences and trellises.

The following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society‘s Award of Garden Merit:

• ‘Alaska Series’
• ‘Hermine Grashoff’
• ‘Whirlybird Series’

The blue nasturtium (Tropaeolum azureum) is a tender species from Chile which has violet-blue flowers with white eyes that can be as much as 4 cm (1.6 in) across

Tropaeolum brachyceras has 2.5 cm (1 in) yellow flowers with purplish markings on wiry, climbing stems. It is a half hardy perennial from Chile and may remain dormant for several years before being sparked into growth by some unknown trigger factor.

Tropaeolum hookerianum is a tuberous-rooted species from Chile. There are two subspecies, T. h. austropurpureum which has violet-purple flowers and T. h. pilosum with yellow flowers.

The Canary creeper (Tropaeolum peregrinum) is a trailing and climbing half-hardy annual species with wiry stalks and palmately lobed leaves. The pale yellow, fringed flowers are borne on long stalks. It originated from Peru but may first have been cultivated in the Canary Islands before being introduced into Western Europe.

Wreath nasturtium (Tropaeolum polyphyllum) is a prostrate plant originating from Argentina and Chile. It has silvery, deeply lobed leaves and a profusion of small, bright yellow flowers on long trailing stalks. After flowering, the plant dies back. It is a perennial with underground rhizomes which send up new shoots at intervals. In a suitable sunny location with well drained soil, it will survive for several years. It is a very hardy species; the tubers can grow at depths of 60 cm (24 in) enabling the plant to survive at altitudes of as much as 3,300 metres (10,000 ft) in the Andes.

The flame flower (Tropaeolum speciosum) is well adapted to cool, moist climates and notoriously does well in Scotland. It sends up shoots which thread their way through hedges and shrubs and which, when they emerge into the light, bear brilliant red flowers among small, five or six-lobed leaves. It is difficult to establish but is an attractive garden plant when it thrives. This plant has gained the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit.

Three-coloured Indian cress (Tropaeolum tricolor) is another tuberous, climbing species grown for its attractive red, purple and yellow tubular flowers. It comes from Chile and Bolivia and is a reliable winter-growing species.

Mashua (Tropaeolum tuberosum) is a perennial climbing plant from the Andes grown for its tuberous roots. It has been cultivated since ancient times and depictions of it are found at archaeological sites pre-dating the Incas. It has leaves with five to seven lobes and small, long-spurred, red and yellow flowers. The tubers have an unpleasant smell when raw which disappears on cooking. It is frost-hardy and produces crops of 30 tons per hectare at a height of 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) above sea level. The cultivar T. tuberosum lineamaculatum ‘Ken Aslet’ has gained the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit.

Species that originated from the coastal areas and from the lower foothills make most of their growth in winter whereas the true alpine species are summer growers. Tuberous Tropaeolum species are well known for occasionally remaining dormant for one or more years. The species with underground rhizomes and tubers can be propagated from these while other species are best raised from seed. Fresh seed is favoured by many growers but dried seed is also often successful. Seed from the winter growing species should be sown in the autumn while the summer growing species are best sown in the spring in well-drained compost and covered with 1 to 2 cm (0.4 to 0.8 in) of grit or sand. The containers should be kept at below 4 °C (39 °F) until the seedlings appear in about a month, as too high a temperature inhibits germination.

Uses

Culinary

All parts of T. majus are edible. The flower has most often been consumed, making for an especially ornamental salad ingredient; it has a slightly peppery taste reminiscent of watercress, and is also used in stir fry. The flowers contain about 130 mg vitamin C per 100 grams (3.5 oz)^] about the same amount as is contained in parsley.

Moreover, they contain up to 45 mg of lutein per 100 gr, which is the highest amount found in any edible plant. The unripe seed pods can be harvested and dropped into spiced vinegar to produce a condiment and garnish, sometimes used in place of capers.

Mashua (T. tuberosum) produces an edible underground tuber that is a major food source in parts of the Andes.

Herbal medicine

Nasturtiums have been used in herbal medicine for their antiseptic and expectorant qualities. They are said to be good for chest colds and to promote the formation of new blood cells. T. majus has been used in herbal medicine for respiratory and urinary tract infections.

Taxonomy

Tropaeolum was previously placed in the family Tropaeolaceae along with two other genera, Magallan and Trophaeastrum. The monotypic genus Magallan was characterised by having winged fruit, and the two species of Trophaeastrum lacked spurs. The genus Tropaeolum was diagnosed only by the absence of the characteristics of the other two genera. A molecular study undertaken in 2000 found Tropaeolum to be paraphyletic when the other two genera are segregated, so Magallan and Trophaeastrum were reduced to synonyms of Tropaeolum. Tropaeolaceae was thus rendered monogeneric, a family of only one genus.

Species

“The Plant List”, a collaboration between the Missouri Botanical Garden and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew includes the following accepted names of Tropaeolum species names. Some that are under review, are here marked “U”.

Tropaeolum adpressum Tropaeolum albiflorum – U Tropaeolum argentinum Tropaeolum asplundii Tropaeolum atrocapillare Tropaeolum atrosanguineum – U Tropaeolum azureum Tropaeolum beuthii Tropaeolum bicolor Tropaeolum bogotense – U Tropaeolum boliviense – U Tropaeolum brachyceras Tropaeolum brasiliense Tropaeolum brideanum Tropaeolum buchenavianum – U Tropaeolum calcaratum Tropaeolum calvum Tropaeolum capillare Tropaeolum carchense Tropaeolum ciliatum Tropaeolum cirrhipes Tropaeolum cochabambae Tropaeolum concavum Tropaeolum concinneum – U Tropaeolum canariense Tropaeolum crenatiflorum Tropaeolum cubio – U Tropaeolum curvirostre – U Tropaeolum cuspidatum Tropaeolum dawei – U Tropaeolum deckerianum Tropaeolum denticualtum – U

Tropaeolum dicolorum – U Tropaeolum dipetalum Tropaeolum elzae – U Tropaeolum emarginatum Tropaeolum ferreyrae Tropaeolum fintelmannii Tropaeolum flavipilum – U Tropaeolum garciae – U Tropaeolum harlingii Tropaeolum hayneanum Tropaeolum hirsutum – U Tropaeolum hirtifolium – U Tropaeolum hjertingii Tropaeolum hookerianum – U Tropaeolum hughesae – U Tropaeolum huigrense Tropaeolum incisum Tropaeolum integrifolium – U Tropaeolum jarrattii – U Tropaeolum jilesii Tropaeolum karstenii – U Tropaeolum kerneisinum Tropaeolum killipii – U Tropaeolum kingii Tropaeolum klotzschii – U Tropaeolum kuntzeanum Tropaeolum lasseri Tropaeolum lehmannii – U Tropaeolum leichtlinii – U Tropaeolum leonis Tropaeolum leptophyllum Tropaeolum lindenii – U Tropaeolum longiflorum

Tropaeolum longifolium – U Tropaeolum looseri Tropaeolum macrophyllum – U Tropaeolum maculifolium – U Tropaeolum magnificum Tropaeolum majus Tropaeolum marginatum Tropaeolum menispermifolium Tropaeolum mexiae – U Tropaeolum meyeri Tropaeolum minus Tropaeolum moritzianum Tropaeolum morreanum – U Tropaeolum myriophyllum Tropaeolum naudinii – U Tropaeolum nuptae-jucundae Tropaeolum orinocense Tropaeolum orthoceras – U Tropaeolum oxalidanthum – U Tropaeolum papillosum Tropaeolum parvifolium – U Tropaeolum pellucidum – U Tropaeolum peltophorum Tropaeolum pendulum Tropaeolum pentagonum Tropaeolum pentaphyllum Tropaeolum peregrinum Tropaeolum polyphyllum Tropaeolum popelari – U Tropaeolum porifolium Tropaeolum pubescens Tropaeolum purpureum

Tropaeolum reichianum – U Tropaeolum reineckeanum – U Tropaeolum repandum – U Tropaeolum rhizophorum – U Tropaeolum rhomboideum Tropaeolum sanctae-catharinae Tropaeolum scheuerianum – U Tropaeolum schillingii – U Tropaeolum schlimii – U Tropaeolum seemannii Tropaeolum sessilifolium Tropaeolum smithii Tropaeolum sparrei – U Tropaeolum speciosum Tropaeolum steyermarkianum Tropaeolum stipulatum Tropaeolum tenellum – U Tropaeolum tenuirostre – U Tropaeolum traceyae – U Tropaeolum trialatum Tropaeolum trialatum Tropaeolum tricolor Tropaeolum tricolori-brachyceras – U Tropaeolum trilobum Tropaeolum trilobum Tropaeolum tuberosum Tropaeolum umbellatum Tropaeolum unilobatum – U Tropaeolum wagnerianum Tropaeolum warmingianum Tropaeolum warscewiczii – U Tropaeolum willinkii

Gardenia

Gardenias are waxy, white and very fragrant flowers Gardenias are one of the most popular exotic flowers

Gardenias are native to the tropical and subtropical regions of Africa, southern Asia, Australasia and Oceania. This species can be difficult to grow elsewhere because it demands high humidity to thrive and bright (not direct) light. Some types of gardenias can be grown as houseplants.

Kingdom – Plantae

Division -Magnoliophyta

Class -Magnoliopsida

Order  -Gentianales

Family -Rubiaceae

Genus -Gardenia

Gardenias symbolize purity and sweetness. They indicate secret love. They convey joy. They tell the receiver “you are lovely”.

ome Interesting Facts About Gardenias

• Gardenias are grown for their beautiful foliage and they make great cut flowers.
• Gardenias flowers from about mid-spring to mid-summer, i.e., May through July
• Many of the gardenia species are strongly scented.
• The genus Gardenia is named after Alexander Garden, a physician in Charleston of South Carolina.
• Gardenias can be used as screens, hedges, borders or ground covers.
• In France, Gardenia is the traditional flower which men wear as boutonnieres.
• The most popular cultivated species is the Cape jasmine, native to China.
• Each gardenia flower is followed by 6-sided berries of rich orange-red with long, elegant stems.
• Gardenia thunbergia produces a woody fruit which has hard, angular seeds inside.

About Gardenia Flower and Plant

Gardenias are very fragrant creamy-white flowers with glossy, dark-green leaves. Gardenia flowers are solitary or in small clusters, white or pale yellow. The gardenia flowers are with a tubular-based corolla with 5-12 lobes petals from 5-12 cm diameter.

Gardenia plants are evergreen shrubs and small trees growing to 1-15 m tall. The Gardenia plant leaves are opposite or in whorls of three or four. They are dark green and glossy 5-50 cm long and 3-25 cm broad, with a leathery texture. They are simple, entire, hairless, with wavy margin.

 

Growing Gardenias

• Gardenia plants need high humidity.
• A loose, well-drained organic soil is recommended.
• For best results plant gardenias in full sun, partial shade, or shifting shade.
• Dig a hole twice the size of the root ball.
• Thoroughly mix one part soil and one part planting mix.
• Check that the top of the original root ball is slightly above the level of the surrounding soil.
• Take the soil mixture and make a gentle mound of soil sloping away from the plant so that the water drains away from the trunk.
• Remove any air pockets, if present.
• Water the plant with a root stimulator.

Gardenia Care

• Do not over-water gardenias.
• Fertilize with an acid fertilizer.
• Check for aphids, mealybugs, spider mites, thrips and scales.
• Also check gardenia plants for bud drop, a common ailment.

Lily – Lilium

 

 Lilium (members of which are true lilies) is a genus of herbaceous flowering plants growing from bulbs, all with large prominent flowers. Lilies are a group of flowering plants which are important in culture and literature in much of the world. Most species are native to the temperate northern hemisphere, though their range extends into the northern subtropics. Many other plants have “lily” in their common name but are not related to true lilie

 

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Monocots
Order: Liliales
Family: Liliaceae
Subfamily: Lilioideae
Genus: Lilium

Names

The botanic name Lilium is the Latin form and is a Linnaean name. The Latin name is derived from the Greek λείριον, leírion, generally assumed to refer to true, white lilies as exemplified by the Madonna lily.^[1] The word was borrowed from Coptic (dial. Fayyumic) hleri, from standard hreri, from Demotic hrry, from Egyptian hrṛt “flower”. Meillet maintains that both the Egyptian and the Greek word are possible loans from an extinct, substratum language of the Eastern Mediterranean. The Greeks also used the word κρῖνον, krīnon, albeit for non-white lilies.The term “lily” has in the past been applied to numerous flowering plants, often with only superficial resemblance to the true lily, including lotus, ranunculus, tulip, iris, anemone, agapanthus, zantedeschia, daylily, and others. All English translations of the Bible render the Hebrew shūshan, shōshan, shōshannā as “lily”, but the “lily among the thorns” of Song of Solomon, for instance, may be the honeysuckle.

Range

The range of lilies in the Old World extends across much of Europe, across most of Asia to Japan, south to India, and east to Indochina and the Philippines. In the New World they extend from southern Canada through much of the United States. They are commonly adapted to either woodland habitats, often montane, or sometimes to grassland habitats. A few can survive in marshland and epiphytes are known in tropical southeast Asia. In general they prefer moderately acidic or lime-free soils.Lilies are tall perennials ranging in height from 2–6 ft (60–180 cm). They form naked or tunicless scaly underground bulbs which are their overwintering organs. In some North American species the base of the bulb develops into rhizomes, on which numerous small bulbs are found. Some species develop stolons. Most bulbs are deeply buried, but a few species form bulbs near the soil surface. Many species form stem-roots. With these, the bulb grows naturally at some depth in the soil, and each year the new stem puts out adventitious roots above the bulb as it emerges from the soil. These roots are in addition to the basal roots that develop at the base of the bulb.The flowers are large, often fragrant, and come in a range of colours including whites, yellows, oranges, pinks, reds and purples. Markings include spots and brush strokes. The plants are late spring- or summer-flowering. Flowers are borne in racemes or umbels at the tip of the stem, with six tepals spreading or reflexed, to give flowers varying from funnel shape to a “Turk’s cap”. The tepals are free from each other, and bear a nectary at the base of each flower. The ovary is ‘superior’, borne above the point of attachment of the anthers. The fruit is a three-celled capsule.Seeds ripen in late summer. They exhibit varying and sometimes complex germination patterns, many adapted to cool temperate climates.Naturally most cool temperate species are deciduous and dormant in winter in their native environment. But a few species which distribute in hot summer and mild winter area (Lilium candidum, Lilium catesbaei,Lilium longiflorum) lose leaves and remain relatively short dormant in Summer or Autumn, sprout from Autumn to winter, forming dwarf stem bearing a basal rosette of leaves until accept enough chilling requirement, the stem begins to elongate while warming.

Ecology

Lilies are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including the Dun-bar.

Toxicity

Some Lilium species are toxic to cats. This is known to be so especially for L. longiflorum though other Lilium and the unrelated Hemerocallis can also cause the same symptoms. The true mechanism of toxicity is undetermined, but it involves damage to the renal tubular epithelium (composing the substance of the kidney and secreting, collecting, and conducting urine), which can cause acute renal failure. Veterinary help should be sought, as a matter of urgency, for any cat that is suspected of eating any part of a lily – including licking pollen that may have brushed onto its coat.

Cultivation

Many species are widely grown in the garden in temperate and sub-tropical regions. They may also be grown as potted plants. Numerous ornamental hybrids have been developed. They can be used in herbaceous borders, woodland and shrub plantings, and as patio plants. Some lilies, especially Lilium longiflorum, form important cut flower crops. These may be forced for particular markets; for instance, L. longiflorum for the Easter trade, when it may be called the Easter lily.Lilies are usually planted as bulbs in the dormant season. They are best planted in a south-facing, slightly sloping aspect, in sun or part shade, at a depth 2½ times the height of the bulb (except L. candidum which should be planted at the surface). Most prefer a porous, loamy soil, and good drainage is essential. Most species bloom in July or August. The flowering periods of certain lily species begin in late spring, while others bloom in late summer or early autumn.^[8] They have contractile roots which pull the plant down to the correct depth, therefore it is better to plant them too shallowly than too deep. A soil pH of around 6.5 is generally safe. The soil should be well-drained, and plants must be kept watered during the growing season. Some plants have strong wiry stems, but those with heavy flower heads may need staking.

Stargazer

Numerous forms, mostly hybrids, are grown for the garden. They vary according to the species and interspecific hybrids that they derived from, and are classified in the following broad groups:

• Asiatic hybrids (Division I). These are plants with medium sized, upright or outward facing flowers, mostly unscented. They are derived from central and East Asian species and interspecific hybrids, including L. amabile, L. bulbiferum, L. callosum, L. cernuum, L. concolor, L. dauricum, L. davidii, L. × hollandicum, L. lancifolium (syn. L. tigrinum), L. lankongense, L. leichtlinii, L. × maculatum, L. pumilum, L. × scottiae, L. wardii and L. wilsonii.
• Martagon hybrids (Division II). These are based on L. × dalhansonii, L. hansonii, L. martagon, L. medeoloides and L. tsingtauense. The flowers are nodding, Turk’s cap style (with the petals strongly recurved).
• Candidum (Euro-Caucasian) hybrids (Division III). This includes mostly European species: L. candidum, L. chalcedonicum, L. kesselringianum, L. monadelphum, L. pomponium, L. pyrenaicum and L. × testaceum.
• American hybrids (Division IV). These are mostly taller growing forms, originally derived from L. bolanderi, L. × burbankii, L. canadense, L. columbianum, L. grayi, L. humboldtii, L. kelleyanum, L. kelloggii, L. maritimum, L. michauxii, L. michiganense, L. occidentale, L. × pardaboldtii, L. pardalinum, L. parryi, L. parvum, L. philadelphicum, L. pitkinense, L. superbum, L. ollmeri, L. washingtonianum and L. wigginsii. Many are clump-forming perennials with rhizomatous rootstocks.
• Longiflorum hybrids (Division V). These are cultivated forms of this species and its subspecies. They are most important as plants for cut flowers, and are less often grown in the garden than other hybrids.
• Trumpet lilies (Division VI), including Aurelian hybrids (with L. henryi). This group includes hybrids of many Asiatic species and their interspecific hybrids, including L. × aurelianense, L. brownii, L. × centigale, L. henryi, L. × imperiale, L. × kewense, L. leucanthum, L. regale, L. rosthornii, L. sargentiae, L. sulphureum and L. × sulphurgale. The flowers are trumpet shaped, facing outward or somewhat downward, and tend to be strongly fragrant, often especially night-fragrant.
• Oriental hybrids (Division VII). These are based on hybrids L. auratum and L. speciosum, together with crossbreeds from several species native to Japan, including L. nobilissimum, L. rubellum, L. alexandrae, and L. japonicum. They are fragrant, and the flowers tend to be outward facing. Plants tend to be tall, and the flowers may be quite large. The whole group are sometimes referred to as “stargazers” because they appear to look upwards. (For the specific cultivar, see Lilium ‘Stargazer’.)
• Other hybrids (Division VIII). Includes all other garden hybrids.
• Species (Division IX). All natural species and naturally occurring forms are included in this group.

And there are subdivisions classified by flower aspect and form. EX:(flower aspect/flower form)Flower aspect:

• a up-facing
• b out-facing
• c down-facing

Flower form:

• a trumpet-shaped
• b bowl-shaped
• c flat (or with tepal tips recurved)
• d tepals strongly recurved (with the Turk’s cap form as the ultimate state)

Many newer commercial varieties are developed by using new technologies such as in vitro pollination, ovary culture and embryo rescue.

Pests and diseases

Aphids may infest plants. Leatherjackets feed on the roots. Larvae of the Scarlet lily beetle can cause serious damage to the stems and leaves. The scarlet beetle lays its eggs and completes its life cycle only on true lilies. Oriental, rubrum, tiger and trumpet lilies as well as Oriental trumpets (orienpets) and Turk’s cap lilies and native North American lily species are all vulnerable, but the beetle prefers some types. The beetle could also be having an effect on native Canada species and some rare and endangered species found in northeastern North America. Day lilies are excluded from this category. Plants can suffer from damage caused by mice, deer and squirrels. Slugs, snails and millipedes attack seedlings, leaves and flowers. Brown spots on damp leaves may signal botrytis (also known as lily disease). Various fungal and viral diseases can cause mottling of leaves and stunting of growth.

Propagation and growth

Lilies can be propagated in several ways;

• by division of the bulbs
• by growing-on bulbils which are adventitious bulbs formed on the stem
• by scaling, for which whole scales are detached from the bulb and planted to form a new bulb
• by seed; there are many seed germination patterns, which can be complex
• by micropropagation techniques (which include tissue culture);commercial quantities of lilies are often propagated in vitro and then planted out to grow into plants large enough to sell.

According to a study done by Anna Pobudkiewicz and Jadwiga the use of flurprimidol foliar spray helps aid in the limitation of stem elongation in oriental lilies.

Culinary and herb uses

China

Lilium bulbs are starchy and edible as root vegetables, although bulbs of some species may be very bitter. The non-bitter bulbs of L. lancifolium, L. pumilum, and especially L. brownii (Chinese: 百合 干; pinyin: bǎihé gān) and Lilium davidii var unicolor are grown on a large scale in China as a luxury or health food, and are most often sold in dry form for herb, the fresh form often appears with other vegetables. The dried bulbs are commonly used in the south to flavor soup. Lily flowers are also said to be efficacious in pulmonary affections, and to have tonic properties. Lily flowers and bulbs are eaten especially in the summer, for their perceived ability to reduce internal heat. They may be reconstituted and stir-fried, grated and used to thicken soup, or processed to extract starch. Their texture and taste draw comparisons with the potato, although the individual bulb scales are much smaller. There are also species which are meant to be suitable for culinary and/or herb uses. There are five traditional lily species whose bulbs are certified and classified as “vegetable and non-staple foodstuffs” on the National geographical indication product list of China.

Culinary use:

野百合Lilium brownii, 百合（变种）Lilium brownii var. viridulum, 渥丹 Lilium concolor, 毛百合 Lilium dauricum, 川百合 Lilium davidii, 东北百合 Lilium distichum, 卷丹 Lilium lancifolium, 新疆百合（变种） Lilium martagon var. pilosiusculum, 山丹 Lilium pumilum, 南川百合 Lilium rosthornii, 药百合（变种） Lilium speciosum var. gloriosoides.

Herb use:

野百合 Lilium brownii, 百合（变种）Lilium brownii var. viridulum, 渥丹 Lilium concolor, 毛百合 Lilium dauricum, 卷丹 Lilium lancifolium, 山丹 Lilium pumilum, 南川百合 Lilium rosthornii, 药百合（变种） Lilium speciosum var. gloriosoides, 淡黄花百合 Lilium sulphureum.

And there are researches about the selection of new varieties of edible lilies from the horticultural cultivars, such as ‘Batistero’ and ‘California’ among 15 lilies in Beijing, and ‘Prato’ and ‘Small foreigners’ among 13 lilies in Ningbo.

Japan

Yuri-ne (lily-root) is also common in Japanese cuisine, especially as an ingredient of chawan-mushi (savoury egg custard). The major lilium species cultivated as vegetable are L. leichtlinii var. maximowiczii, L. lancifolium, and L. auratum

Taiwan

The parts of lilium species which are officially listed as food material are the flower and bulbs of Lilium lancifolium Thunb., Lilium brownii F. E. Brown var. viridulum Baker, Lilium pumilum DC., Lilium candidum Loureiro. Most edible lily bulbs which can be purchased in a market are mostly imported from mainland China (only in the scale form, and most marked as 蘭州百合 Lilium davidii var unicolor) and Japan (whole bulbs, should mostly be L. leichtlinii var. maximowiczii). There are already commercially available organic growing and normal growing edible lily bulbs. The varieties are selected by the Taiwanese Department of Agriculture from the Asiatic lily cultivars that are imported from the Netherlands; the seedling bulbs must be imported from the Netherlands every year.

South Korea

The lilium species which are officially listed as herbs are 이 약은 참나리 Lilium lancifolium Thunberg; 백합 Lilium brownii var. viridulun Baker; 또는 큰솔나리 Lilium pumilum DC.

The “lily” flower buds known as jīnzhēn (金针, “golden needles”) in Chinese cuisine are actually from the daylily Hemerocallis fulva.

Taxonomy

Taxonomical division in sections follows the classical division of Comber, species acceptance follows the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families, the taxonomy of section Pseudolirium is from the Flora of North America, the taxonomy of Section Liriotypus is given in consideration of Resetnik et al. 2007, the taxonomy of Chinese species (various sections) follows the Flora of China  and the taxonomy of Section Archelirion follows Nishikawa et al. as does the taxonomy of Section Archelirion.

There are seven sections;

• Martagon
• Pseudolirium
• Liriotypus
• Archelirion
• Sinomartagon
• Leucolirion
• Daurolirion

Some species formerly included within this genus have now been placed in other genera. These genera include Cardiocrinum, Notholirion, Nomocharis and Fritillaria.

Rhododendron

Rhododendron is a genus of over 1000 species of woody plants in the heath family, either evergreen or deciduous. Most species have showy flowers. Azaleas make up two subgenera of Rhododendron.

Fire Orange Rhodendendron

 

Species of the genus Rhododendron are native to every continent of the world, except South America and Africa.^[9] The highest species diversity is found in the Himalayas from Uttarakhand, Nepal and Sikkim to Yunnan and Sichuan, with other significant areas of diversity in the mountains of Korea, Japan and Taiwan.

Tropical rhododendron species range from southeast Asia to northern Australia, with 55 known species in Borneo and 164 in New Guinea. Interestingly, the species in New Guinea are native to subalpine moist grasslands at around 3000 metres above sea level in the Central Highlands^{. ]} Relatively fewer species occur in North America and Europe.

Invasive species

Some species (e.g. Rhododendron ponticum in Ireland and the United Kingdom) are invasive as introduced plants, spreading in woodland areas replacing the natural understory. R. ponticum is difficult to eradicate, as its roots can make new shoots.

Insects

A number of insects either target rhododendrons or will opportunistically attack them. Rhododendron borers and various weevils are major pests of rhododendrons, and many caterpillars will preferentially devour them.

Rhododendron species are used as food plants by the larvae of some members of the order Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) (See List of Lepidoptera that feed on rhododendrons).

Diseases

Main article: List of rhododendron diseases

Major diseases include Phytophthora root rot, stem and twig fungal dieback; Ohio State University Extension provides information on maintaining health of rhododendrons^. Rhododendrons can easily be suffocated by other plants.

Rhododendron is a genus characterized by shrubs and small to (rarely) large trees, the smallest species growing to 10–100 cm (3.9–39 in) tall, and the largest, R. giganteum, reported to over 30 m (98 ft) tall.^[4] The leaves are spirally arranged; leaf size can range from 1–2 cm (0.39–0.79 in) to over 50 cm (20 in), exceptionally 100 cm (39 in) in R. sinogrande. They may be either evergreen or deciduous. In some species, the undersides of the leaves are covered with scales (lepidote) or hairs (indumentum). Some of the best known species are noted for their many clusters of large flowers. There are alpine species with small flowers and small leaves, and tropical species such as section Vireya that often grow as epiphytes. Species in this genus may be part of the heath complex in oak-heath forests in eastern North America.

Narcissus

 

Narcissus or Daffodil

The name “daffodil” is derived from an earlier “affodell”, a variant of Asphodel. The reason for the introduction of the initial “d” is not known, although a probable source is an etymological merging from the Dutch article “de”, as in “De affodil”. From at least the 16th century, “Daffadown Dilly”, “daffadown dilly”, and “daffydowndilly” have appeared as playful synonyms of the name.

In common parlance and in historical documents, the term “daffodil” may refer specifically to populations or specimens of the wild daffodil,

Narcissus grow from pale brown-skinned spherical bulbs with pronounced necks. The leafless stems, appearing from early to late spring depending on the species, bear from 1 to 20 blooms. Each flower has a central bell-, bowl-, or disc-shaped corona surrounded by a ring of six floral leaves called the perianth which is united into a tube at the forward edge of the 3-locular ovary. The three outer segments are sepals, and the three inner segments are petals.

Flower colour varies from white through yellow to deep orange. Breeders have developed some daffodils with double, triple, or ambiguously multiple rows and layers of segments, and several wild species also have known double variants.

The seeds are black, round and swollen with a hard coat.

Narcissus is a popular subject as an ornamental plant for gardens, parks and as cut flowers, providing colour from the end of winter to the beginning of summer in temperate regions. Thousands of varieties and cultivars are available from both general and specialist suppliers. They are normally sold as dry bulbs to be planted in late Summer and Autumn (Fall). Over 140 varieties have gained the Royal Horticultural Society‘s Award of Garden Merit.